SCIENCE BLOGS

Although the full moon may appear to be full for a couple of days, the actual full moon is only for one day. Calendars have been made on the lunar cycle, based upon the appearance of a full moon and new moon, generally every 27 to 28 days, with a full moon about the middle of each month. A new moon is when the moon is not visible from Earth.

Throughout time different names have been given for a full moon. The most romantic is the moon in June. Another example is the egg moon, which occurs nearest Easter. A blue moon is when the moon becomes full twice in a one month period. They are considered seasonal. When normally a full moon occurs three times per equinox period, such as March, April, May, a fourth moon in any given season is termed a blue moon. They occur about every two to four years, depending on what calendar used. Lunar calendars have been largely replaced by modern day calendars, largely based upon the Julian calendar with much improvement due to the atomic clock.

The planet Mars has been an intrigue to man since ancient days. Telescope exploration in the 1800’s described Martian canals and oceans, based upon what we know now as optical illusions but with some association with some real features. A later novel by H. G. Wells sparked much interest in the early 1900’s as to the presence of life on Mars. With the founding of the National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA), programs were developed to explore Mars more closely than Earth based observation.

Mars exploration by NASA has thus far been in three phases. Flybys were designed to send a spacecraft close enough to the planet for the first close up pictures. These were the Mariner spacecrafts 3-4 and 6-7, each with successive instrumental improvements. The next phase was sending orbiters once the technology existed to establish a satellite in orbit around Mars for continued global monitoring of the planet. These spacecraft were equipped with sophisticated cameras and sensor instruments which detected the presence of water, past and present on the surface of Mars. They detected large canyons, volcanoes and apparent dried river beds similar to features here on Earth. Those orbiters were Mariner 8-9, Viking 1-2, Mars Observer, Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Climate Orbiter, 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Express and the current Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. These spacecraft delivered sufficient information on the planet and with the continued advancement in space exploration technology the third phase of landing a spacecraft on Mars was studied. Not only landing, it was determined that a spacecraft, or rover, could be mobile and remotely controlled from Earth. Those Landers and Rovers started a new kind of Mars exploration. They included Viking 1-2, Pathfinder, Polar Lander/Deep Space 2, Mars Exploration Rovers, Phoenix and the Mars Science Laboratory. Until the first successful flyby of Mars occurred in 1965, by Mariner 4, many speculated about the presence of liquid water on the planet's surface. This was based on observed periodic variations in light and dark patches, particularly in the polar latitudes, which appeared to be seas and continents; long, dark striations were interpreted by some as irrigation channels for liquid water. These straight line features were later explained as optical illusions, though geological evidence gathered by unmanned missions suggest that Mars once had large-scale water coverage on its surface. In 2005, radar data revealed the presence of large quantities of water ice at the poles, and at mid-latitudes. The Mars rover Spirit sampled chemical compounds containing water molecules in March 2007. The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice in shallow Martian soil on July 31, 2008.  Currently NASA has accomplished establishing remote laboratories on another planet. Results of soil testing have determined minerals and rock types and determined the presence of water in the polar regions. The next phase of Mars exploration is anticipated to be atmospheric balloons and unmanned aircraft which can study the planet in close scrutiny from an aerial perspective from the Martian skies.

NASA’s robotic land rovers, the Mars Exploration Rovers were launched on June 10 and July 7, 2003. They landed on Mars January 3 and January 24, 2004 after traveling 483 million miles through deep space. The purpose of the missions were to gather information on the history of water on the planet as well as characterize the rocks and soils in unraveling Martian geology. This is a long term robotic exploration program which has already exceeded mission goals in many respects.

Landing spots were chosen on opposite sides of Mars in two locations, the Gusey Crater and Meridiani Planum, one of the Martian plains. Spirit landed in the Gusey Crater and began exploring the rims of smaller craters within the larger Gusey crater. This location was selected as a landing area because it was believe that the crater was filled by a large lake at some point in the Martian past. A similar scenario as Crater Lake here on Earth. Opportunity landed on Meridiani Planum, and began to explore small craters which dot this Martian plain geographic feature since earlier US orbital missions found evidence of the hydroxide mineral hematite and the volcanic mineral pyroxene.

Instruments from the Martian Reconnaissance Orbiter records and relays the rover data to Earth. Both rovers were still exploring as of January, 2009, both achieving their 50^th anniversary . Scientist continue to study the data and plan for many more robotic experiments, hopefully through 2009. This is a spectacular achievement for NASA, in that the original mission was only expected to last for ninety days. One lander still transmits data to Earth via the Orbiter.  The other Lander has become silient and believed to be unfunctional.  Another US Mars Lander, the Phoenix, descended on May 25, 2008 in a Martian polar region. After already beaming back to Earth it’s mission objectives, it now awaits the Martian summer in 2010 to continue ice testing, if it survives the Martian winter. So far, liquid salt water has been confirmed.  To date, no more data has been transmited from Phoenix (1/16/2012).  The probe was not expected to withstand the harsh Martian winter, but accomplished it's mission in confirming the presense of water ice.

The New General Catalogue (NGC) of deep space objects was created by J.L.E Dreyer in the 1880’s. This was the result of a request by the Royal Astronomical Society. Much of the deep space inventory was researched by William and John Herschel. James Dunlop contributed to many of the southern hemisphere sky. Prior to the NGC classifications the only other list of objects were that of the Charles Messier objects, which only covered the northern hemisphere sky and objects which were bright enough to be visible with telescopes of that time. The NGC initial list was 7,840 objects, with an additional 5,326 added in two Index Catalogues, the IC I in 1896 and IC II in 1905.

The NGC list of deep space objects consist of what we now know as galaxies, planetary nebulae, diffuse nebulae, star clusters and all types of objects previously un-classed. The NGC experience several updates up until 1988, with the publication of NGC2000.0. The catalogue remains a favorite resource for amateur and professional astronomers. The internet has several excellent references to star charts which have the celestial coordinates and maps for the NGC catalogue of deep space objects.

    Pulsars, originally known as pulsating stars, were first discovered in 1967. They are highly magnetized stars, very similar to a neutron star but emit high levels of electromagnetic energy.

Pulsars are very dense and some astronomers consider them as a neutron star, although with peculiar characteristics. In fact, some astronomers postulate that both neutron stars and pulsars are the same, the only difference is that the beam of radiation we see from Earth is because it is being emitted in our direction. Due to there heavy mass pulsars spin on their axis at an extreme rate. The beam of radiation can only be observed when the beam is pointed in our direction, called the lighthouse effect, similar to the beam of light rotating from a lighthouse in pulses. This pulsed nature gives pulsars their name. The pulses are so regular, on the order of 1.4 milliseconds to 8.5 seconds, that some are so regular as to be compared in precision as an atomic clock. Further investigations of Pulsars have identified that in most cases they are binary star systems, where one star is being cannibalized by the other forming streams of gases forming an accretion disk around the star that is the pulsar. Three types of pulsars have been categorized. A Rotation-powered pulsar is when there is a loss of rotational energy powers the radiation. An Accretion-powered pulsar are the most common, in which the potential energy of accreted matter is the energy source. A Magnetar is a pulsar where the decay of an extremely strong magnetic field powers the energy.

Although pulsars can be seen optically, most studies have been conducted based on observations of the X-rays and gamma rays they emit. The Fermi Space Telescope has discovered a subclass of rotation powered pulsars which only emit gamma rays, although they are not common. The study of pulsars is still in it’s infancy, and many more NASA space probes are expected to be placed in orbit to obtain information upon these unique star systems.

Quasars are probably the most puzzling space phenomenon known by astronomers, other than black holes and pulsars.

A quasar is an extremely distant object based upon Hubble’s Law and the individual objects spectral redshift. They are believed to be on the order of billions of light-years distant, making them the most ancient of objects known in the universe. As well as old, they must be extremely luminous, or bright, to even be seen with some of the largest modern telescopes. Optically, they appear as a star, however their distinctive spectrums distinguish them from stars. A quasar can radiate the light equivalent of an entire galaxy, or multi-trillion sun equivalence. They also radiate extremes in X-rays and the infrared. There are approximately 200,000 known. It was not until the early 1980’s that astronomers even began to postulate theories as to what they even were. Current beliefs suggest a quasar is related to a super massive black hole embedded at the center of a host galaxy, powered by an accretion disk. An accretion disk is light and energy that is visible prior to entering the black hole. This is what is actually being seen optically, as the actual galaxy is dimmed by the glare of the accretion disk. There are galaxies closer to Earth which are generally known to contain a black hole, but not quasars. Some of the galaxies do however, share the “jets” of material and energy ejected or beamed about perpendicular to the center of the galaxy from our point of perspective here on Earth, just as some quasars.

There are a few quasars within optical reach of amateur telescopes in the range of 12 to 13 apparent magnitudes. They will require precise celestial coordinates to be located, and a detailed star chart with there location and designation. They will only appear as a background star, but still billions of light years distant.

Marine biology is the study of organisms living in the ocean or estuaries. It also includes those organisms which may temporarily live on land, such as the marine iguana. The study of marine biology includes shorelines, tidal pools, mud flats and any environment or habitat with a relationship to the oceans and seas.

The sea is where life began. There are more phyla of animals and plants in the ocean environment than on land. The oceans comprise about 71% of the Earth's surface, and there is about 300 times more life in the oceans than on terrestrial surface. Marine life fundamentally defines the essence of planet Earth. The study of the oceans, including currents and the affects on weather, is collectively described as the science of oceanography. Marine biology is the study of the specific organisms which dwell in the sea, including fish, mammals, and micro organisms. Zooplankton and phytoplankton are the basis of the entire worlds food supply. Microscopic marine biology is probably the most studied. The study of the relationships between sea life is called marine ecology. Coral reefs are colonial organisms which secrete carbonate and silica. Coral reefs supply the abundance of the world's oxygen demand and regulation of global climate.

Marine life is a principal resource for food, medicine and raw materials. Fishing, for example, is one of the most primary food sources for humans. Without marine life, mankind could simply not exist. The conservation of the marine environment is paramount. To a large extent, the nature of life in the oceans is still relatively unknown. New species are discovered routinely.

The Geologic Time Scale is a relative measure of the rock record. It is the basic tool for geologist much as the Periodic Table of the Elements is for the chemist. Early geologist recognized that layers of rock were superimposed on one another by successive layers, and that the bottom layer was older than the next successive layer. This Law of Superposition was the founding of what has developed as the Geologic Time Scale, with input from many geologist over time from all over the world.

Today the timescale is coded by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) and here in the US the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The first recognition that there was rhyme and reason in the layers of rock were mentioned by Aristotle and Leonardo de Vinci. The real study of stratigraphy began in the 1800's with the first published time table in 1913. This was based mostly on studies by European geologist.

Today the timetable has evolved into a somewhat complex nomenclature of geologic history, incorporating the sciences of stratigraphy, paleontology and geochemistry. Radiometric dating has also been incorporated into the timetable as general guidelines, especially with the oldest rocks known. Much of Earth's geologic history has been deduced from information derived from the Geologic Time Table and rock record. Radiometric has indicated that the Earth is about 4.570 billion years old. This age is divided into four major time units, starting from the Pre-Cambrian Supereon, Phanerozoic Era and Cenozoic Era. These eras are then further subdivided into geologic periods and epochs.

Different kings of rocks are basically classified according to their origins. They all have distinguishing characteristics which make differentiation of them possible. Geologist are scientist which study rocks and their origins. Amateur geologist are often referred to as rock hounds, and they comprised one of the more popular hobbies practiced by people today. Rock classification starts off easy, with only three major rock types. Igneous rocks are those which formed from a molten state. Metamorphic rocks are those which formed from intense heat and pressure. Sedimentary rocks are those which were deposited in layers by wind or water. The study of these rock associations is a branch of geology called stratigraphy. Different minerals which rocks are made of also distinguish the three rock types.

Igneous rocks include intrusive rocks, or those forming from a molten state, called magma, deep beneath the Earth's crust. They include the granite, diorite, and basalt families. There are many sub classifications of these, based upon mineral content and particle size. Extrusive volcanic rocks include volcanic pyroclastic debris, such as volcanic ash and lava flows. Igneous rocks may be mafic, or containing mostly ferro-magnesium minerals, or felsic, containing abundant quartz and feldspar. The study of volcanoes is called volcanology.

Metamorphic rocks are rocks which form as igneous or sedimentary rocks which have subsequently been exposed to extreme heat and pressure, in many cases recrystallizing the original rock type. Metamorphic rocks may themselves be re-metamorphosed. Types include schist, gneiss and marble.

Sedimentary rocks are those which are attributed to erosion, by wind, ice or water. They are typically deposited in layers. Examples include conglomerate, sandstone, shale, slate and limestone. Fossil plants and animals are found in these rocks. The study of fossil rocks is called paleontology.

Rock Hounds is an expression used to describe people who are basically amateur geologist. They hunt and collect rocks, minerals, and fossils as a hobby.

To become a good rock hound requires some basic knowledge of geology fundamentals, such as basic rock types and the minerals which dominant in each rock class. This information is readily available on the internet and local library. There are also rock clubs and seminars taught from various universities and museums. From these you will learn the three major rock classifications, igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. You will also learn that sedimentary rocks are those which contain the abundance of fossils, seldom metamorphic rocks and rarely igneous rocks. Igneous rocks comprise the volcanic rocks, and fossils are only found is extrusive ash deposits, such as volcanic ash. Sometimes these rock types undergo metamorphism, becoming metamorphic rocks. Fossils can sometimes survive the heat and pressure, and only low grade metamorphic rocks, such as slate, will contain fossils. There are some exotic and beautiful kinds of rocks, and rock hounds will strive to collect as many of them as possible to their collection. Gem collecting is somewhat more specified. Placer deposits and saprolite, or weathered rock, is a good location for gem collecting.

Gold collectors may also, and usually are, rock hounds In this instance, they may be panning for gold. As a side theme, they many times find gems in placer deposits, besides gold. Thus the serious rock hound will have much of the tools used by professional geologist. A rock hammer is a must. This is a specialized hammer with both a hammer end and a pick, for dislodging earth materials. The rock hound must also have a satchel in which to store specimens. A geologic or topographic map is useful, available from the USGS. A gold pan is necessary for placer deposit exploration. If tracing a group of rocks, known as a rock formation, a specialized compass, such as a Brunton compass, is useful for determination of the angles and vectors of a particular rock formation. This can give guidance in the direction upon a particular rock formation may be found at another location.

Rock and mineral shows, clubs, exhibits and lapidary arts abound in the US and Canada, with some excellent international exhibits. These may be found in the media, libraries and internet.

Meteorology is the study of many different studies of weather and the atmosphere. These studies have important implications as to normal society, such as the military, transport, agriculture, energy and infrastructure.

Since the introduction of the computer last century, various meteorological models have been developed to explain and predict changes in the Troposphere, which is one of three layers of the Earth's atmosphere which predominately produces the most weather. Weather is also common in the Stratosphere, another atmospheric level. Meteorology places it's main focus on the understanding of observable events caused by existing variables, such as temperature, air pressure and moisture. The meteorologist produces local weather maps which portray these relation ships. A second breakthrough in weather prediction other than computerized models was introduced by a radar technique called Doppler radar. This is the primary means of communication forecasted over the mass media, especially the internet and television.

The global understanding of meteorology is termed climatology, which incorporates the relationship of Earth's atmosphere and oceans. These studies often bridge with the study of oceanography. There are many scientific hobby projects which can study meteorology on a local level, and even give predictive results for local weather conditions. Those projects are abundant and can be found on the internet.

Weather stations are facilities which study weather conditions of the atmosphere by the use of specialized equipment. These weather stations may be permanent facilities or portable. The stations measure temperature, barometric pressure, humidity, wind speed and direction. They also measure precipitation amounts, such as rainfall or snow. Direct measurements are taken once a day. Automatic readings are taken once an hour. The instruments used include thermometers, barometers, hydrometers, anemometers, wind vanes. A rain gauge is used for measuring precipitation. More sophisticated remote sensing technologies include satellite, infrared and Doppler radar images. The measurements are collated, analyzed and reported by state to various including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). This information is also presented on the mass media, usually radio and television, in the form of weather maps or computer images.

While weather stations may be extremely complex facilities, some portable stations are available for the private sector and hobbyist. Many private homes even have thermometers and barometers inside connected to outside sensors for minute by minute determinations of weather conditions. More sophisticated portable weather stations have all of the basic weather instruments located in an appropriate outside isolated area. Almost every popular model of current radio has weather channels for immediate warnings of inclement weather, such as severe thunderstorms, tornado's and other strong wind advisories.

The weather is in constant motion with areas of high and low pressures, jet streams various cloud formations and allows for interesting study and appreciation for all ages. The study of weather is called meteorology, and this science has become one of the more intensely studied the past 50 years.

Global Warming is basically the increase of the Earth's average temperature. Global warming events have occurred continually in geologic time, with many events over millions of years. We also recognize that during recent geologic periods in the Pleistocene epoch the Earth was going thru a major ice age. This was only 12,000 years ago, and the warming trend the Earth is experiencing may be to a large degree the planet still coming out of this last ice age. There is also little doubt that there are mankind produced attributable causes.

Over the past 100 years, the average temperature of air above the Earth's surface has risen about 1 degree Celsius. Even such a small change has increased the intensity and increase of storms, floods, and forest fires. The intensity of storms is evident in the severity of inclement weather, such as hurricanes and tornado's. The Earth is now warmer than for at least the last thousand years. The three hottest years ever recorded occurred during the last eight years.

To study global warming there has to be an understanding of two major processes, the greenhouse effect and carbon dioxide cycle. The Earth is surrounded by the atmosphere. Most light from the sun reflects back into space, but the atmosphere retains sufficient heat to allow for life on Earth, with warming of land and oceans. Carbon dioxide in itself is necessary for life on Earth, although it too has been rising over the past several decades. Plants breath carbon dioxide and exhale oxygen, so there is delicate balance in this cycle. Fossil fuels produce carbon dioxide when ignited, as do forest fires. Although this process can also contribute to global warming, excess ozone, methane, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons probably contribute more. The international community has become in collaboration in studying the processes of global warming and what measures mankind can take to prevent an ecological disaster.